Prior to 1990, people with disabilities had little recourse if they were discriminated against in obtaining or keeping a job. Now, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) requires that, when needed, on-the-job accommodations be made so that employees with disabilities have opportunities equal to those of their non-disabled peers.

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The ADA states that "no otherwise qualified individual with a disability shall, solely by reason of his or her disability, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity of a public entity."

When President George Bush signed the ADA into law on July 26, 1990, people displayed strong reactions on both sides of the issue. On one hand, some advocates felt that the ADA would bring an end to discrimination against people with disabilities in the workplace and in public facilities. On the other hand, many business organizations thought that compliance with the ADA would require unreasonable modifications to employment practices and procedures, and would cost the employer and the American public large sums of money. In reality, the ADA may not have deserved such swift and emotional public reactions. When the dust settled it appeared that the requirements of the ADA would not bankrupt businesses. It was also clear, unfortunately, that the ADA would not immediately end discrimination against people with disabilities.

The ADA is the first comprehensive federal civil rights statute protecting people with disabilities from discrimination in employment, public services, transportation, public accommodations, and telecommunications. It affects almost every employer and public service provider and all transportation and housing providers in the United States.

Prior to the ADA, federal laws protecting people with disabilities from discrimination were limited to those recipients of funds or contracts from the federal government. The ADA applies to all private employers, including state and local government agencies, with 15 or more employees. Title I prohibits private employers, state and local governments, employment agencies and labor unions from discriminating against qualified individuals with disabilities in job application procedures, hiring, firing, advancement, compensation, job training, and other terms, conditions and privileges of employment.

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Knowledge of legal issues that affect the employment of people with disabilities is critical to the success of students with disabilities as they transition from school to work. Let's look at some of the terminology employed by the ADA. First of all, we will address who is considered to be a "person with a disability." The ADA states that a person with a disability is someone who:

• has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, including walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning, and working;
• has a record of such an impairment; or
• is regarded as having such an impairment.

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Note that the ADA uses a functional rather than a medical definition. In other words, the ADA is not concerned with a particular diagnosis. The law looks at disability only as it relates to the performance of specific tasks. Some of the types of disabilities that may be included under the ADA's sweeping legislative coverage include, but are not limited to, spinal cord injuries, loss of limbs, Multiple Sclerosis, Muscular Dystrophy, Cerebral Palsy, hearing impairments, visual impairments, speech impairments, specific learning disabilities, head injuries, psychiatric disorders, Diabetes, Cancer, and AIDS. These specific categories of disabilities are conditions which may limit the ability of people to perform certain tasks. Some of these conditions are readily apparent and some are not visible.

People who have the same named condition or diagnostic label may have very different skills and abilities when it comes to performing specific job-related tasks. For example, one person who has Cerebral Palsy may have difficulty walking. For another person, Cerebral Palsy may result in no functional use of her hands. For a third individual, Cerebral Palsy may primarily affect his ability to speak. A person who has a disability requires an accommodation on the job only when the disability has an affect related to the specific job and work environment.

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Now let's consider who is a "qualified" applicant or employee with a disability. The ADA identifies a qualified person with a disability as an individual who, with or without a reasonable accommodation, can perform the essential functions of the job in question.

Now, let's look at examples of "reasonable" accommodations.

• A modification or adjustment to the application process that would allow a qualified applicant with a disability to be considered for a specific position.
• A modification or adjustment to the physical layout of the worksite that would make it possible for a qualified individual with a disability to perform the essential functions of the job.
• Purchasing equipment that will allow an employee with a disability perform the tasks required on the job, such as an amplification device for a telephone for someone with a hearing impairment, a raised desk that allows access by a person using a wheelchair, or creating files with large print identification or Braille for a person with a visual impairment.
• Restructuring job duties, modifying work schedules or reassignment to a vacant position.

Employers are not required to lower the standard quality of their product or their rate of production to make an accommodation. Nor are they obligated to provide personally prescribed devices such as wheelchairs, personal care attendants, glasses or hearing aids.

Employers are only required to make an accommodation for a qualified applicant or employee with a known disability if it would not impose an "undue hardship" on the operation of the employer's business. An undue hardship is defined as an action that requires significant difficulty or expense in relation to the size of the employer, the resources available, and the nature of the operation. When employers attempt to make the determination regarding whether a request for an accommodation is reasonable, they must consider the size of their business, their financial resources, the effect of the accommodation on other workers, and the nature and structure of their business operation. Rarely is an accommodation for an employee so costly that undue hardship can be claimed.

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The intern or employee is required to make the request for a reasonable accommodation. The employer is not required to guess or to initiate the conversation regarding the provision of accommodations. In fact, a pre-employment inquiry about a disability or medical condition may not be made by the employer prior to a job offer. This includes asking a question about accommodations on a pre-employment questionnaire or written application form. An employer may only ask questions regarding the applicant's ability to perform specific job-related functions.

Frequently, when a qualified individual with a disability requests an accommodation, the appropriate accommodation is obvious. The request may be based upon his own life or work experiences. However, when the appropriate accommodation is not readily apparent, the employer must make a reasonable effort to identify one. The best way to do this is to consult with the applicant or employee who has a disability regarding potential accommodations that would allow him to perform the essential functions of the job.

If the employee or intern and the employer are not able to identify an appropriate accommodation, then the employer or employee with a disability may wish to consult the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). This organization provides a resource for information about ADA requirements affecting employment. State or local vocational rehabilitation agencies, or state or local organizations representing or providing services to individuals with disabilities may also be sources of useful information. Another resource is the Job Accommodation Network (JAN). JAN is a free consultant service that helps businesses and employees determine effective worksite accommodations. Contact information for EEOC and JAN can be found in the Resources section of this notebook.

In most cases, these methods are effective in determining appropriate accommodations. If disagreements cannot be resolved between the employer and the employee regarding what accommodation is reasonable, a complaint can be filed by the employee with the Department of Justice (DOJ). DOJ is the federal agency designated to investigate complaints based on noncompliance of the ADA. The Department of Justice has achieved greater access for individuals with disabilities in hundreds of cases. However, under general rules governing lawsuits brought by the federal government, the Department of Justice may not sue a party unless negotiations to settle the dispute have failed. In addition, the Department of Justice may file lawsuits in Federal court to enforce the ADA, and courts may order compensatory damages and back pay to remedy discrimination if the Department prevails. Further information about legal issues and reasonable accommodation can be obtained from the Office of Equal Employment Opportunity. Contact information can be found in the Resources section of this notebook.

Misconceptions about people with disabilities generally come from a lack of knowledge about a specific disability. When people without disabilities interact with people with disabilities they tend to have more positive attitudes about working together. Further, employers and co-workers who are familiar with a variety of on-the-job accommodation strategies are better prepared to make appropriate accommodations and to fully include people with disabilities in work environments. Specific strategies for accommodating and working with individuals with disabilities are covered in later sections of this notebook.

Video Presentation

• It's Your Career

Handout

• It's Your Career: Work-Based Learning Opportunities for Students with Disabilities

This section and the accompanying video presentation and handout speak to the issues of access to, and benefits of, work-based learning activities from the student's perspective.

Why Participate in Work-Based Learning?

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Work-based learning experiences are any work experiences, paid or unpaid, that provide opportunities to practice skills learned in school, clarify academic and career interests, determine which worksite accommodations work best, and develop contacts for future employment. Much of what students gain from participation in work-based learning activities cannot be taught in a typical college course. Through the interaction of classroom study and work experiences, students can enhance their academic knowledge, personal development and professional preparation.

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Work-based learning can give students with disabilities opportunities to practice disclosing their disabilities, and requesting accommodations from potential employers while determining which accommodations work best for them. It is essential to their future success that they be able to clearly articulate their accommodation needs as they apply for jobs after graduation. The time to practice is now. In addition, participating in work experience programs can help students with disabilities:

• clarify academic and career goals,
• gain academic credit,
• pay for their education,
• apply practical theories from classroom work,
• develop human relations and teamwork skills through interaction with co-workers,
• develop job search skills,
• learn to tailor résumés and cover letters to particular employers and positions,
• gain exposure to specialized facilities not available on campus,
• identify community-based career assistance programs, and
• develop contacts for employment after graduation.

Many colleges and universities offer programs that help students gain work experience and network with potential employers. Offerings vary from campus to campus. Students need to do some research to find those best suited to their needs. Work-based learning programs include:

• internships,
• cooperative education,
• job shadowing,
• service learning,
• independent study,
• informational interviews, and
• career services.

Descriptions of these activities are as follows.

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What is an Internship?

An internship is a time-limited, intensive learning experience outside of the typical classroom. Students work with program staff and participating employers to locate suitable positions for a planned set of learning activities. Internships give students broad overviews of occupational fields while providing opportunities to develop work-readiness skills. Academic credit is sometimes granted, depending on the academic program.

What is Cooperative Education?

Cooperative education programs work with students, faculty, staff, and employers to help students clarify career and academic goals, and expand classroom study by allowing students to participate in paid, practical work experiences. These programs provide students opportunities to work in trainee positions in their fields of interest and to gain career-related experience as a part of their academic programs. Many employers use cooperative education programs as a way to groom future employees. Academic credit may be arranged.

What is Job Shadowing?

Job shadowing, where students visit businesses to observe one or more specific job, provides them with a realistic view of occupations in a variety of settings. They observe essential functions of occupational areas of interest. Experiences vary in time from one hour to a full day depending on the amount of time employers can provide. Job shadowing experiences offer opportunities for career exploration. Students usually arrange job shadowing appointments independently. Typically, they do not generate academic credit.

What is Service Learning?

Service learning programs offer opportunities to be concerned, informed and productive citizens by providing community service in non-paid, volunteer positions. It gives students opportunities to apply knowledge and skills learned in school while making a contribution to local communities. Academic credit may or may not be arranged depending on the field of study.

What is an Independent Study?

Students may be able to earn academic credit for work experiences outside of a structured career-based program. Many academic programs allow independent studies as an optional program component. Students who choose to enroll in independent studies work one-on-one with individual faculty members to develop projects for credit. Projects can range from research papers to work experience within their fields of study. Work experience, coupled with documentation, such as a journal or paper, is an excellent way to practice and demonstrate the skills learned in college.

What is an Informational Interview?

Informational interviews, where students meet with people working in careers to ask questions about their jobs and companies, allow students to gain personal perspectives on career interests. They also allow students to learn more about jobs from the people who do them every day. Informational interviews are usually arranged by the students themselves and don't typically generate academic credit.

What is Career Services?

A career services office provides a variety of career and job search services to students and alumni. Many can help people develop career plans and job search skills through individual counseling and job search workshops. The career services office acts as a liaison between students, alumni, faculty, staff, and prospective employers by organizing campus interviews, employer information and career fairs. Many offices also provide job listings and job lines for students and alumni to access.

Which Employers Participate?

Federal and State agencies, public, private and nonprofit businesses seek college students for placements across the country and overseas. The majority of opportunities are for sophomores and older students. However, some also offer opportunities to freshmen. Boeing, IBM, Microsoft, NASA, the President's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities, US Central Intelligence Agency, USDA Forest Service, the US Department of Energy, and Weyerhaeuser, are just a few of the thousands of employers nationwide who offer valuable opportunities to students.

Who are the Team Players?

Career development professionals are required to assist all students, including students with disabilities, as they prepare to enter the workforce. Other team players in assuring successful transitions to employment include the students themselves, employers, faculty members, staff, teachers, counselors, and disabled student services staff.

College students with disabilities should:

• Register with campus work-based learning centers, such as Career Services and Cooperative Education, so they can notify them of work-based learning opportunities.
• Participate in orientations, seminars, workshops, and individual counseling sessions to effectively enhance their job search skills.
• Let the work-based learning and disabled student services coordinators know what types of accommodations they may need to effectively perform in a specific work setting.
• Access local support networks and disability services organizations that may be able to aid them in their job search.

Employers should:

• Update position announcements and notify work-based learning coordinators of new positions.
• Work in partnership with work-based learning centers to proactively develop strategies to encourage students with disabilities to participate in their work environments.
• Educate their staff regarding diversity.

Faculty members, staff, teachers, or counselors should:

• Encourage students with disabilities to gain work-based learning experiences.
• Invite staff members from Cooperative Education, Career Services and other campus programs to speak to their classes or programs.
• Encourage employers to seek students with disabilities for work opportunities.

Disabled Student Services (DSS) officers should:

• Encourage students to register and participate in work-based learning centers on campus.
• Be proactive in students' academic and career plans. Let them know how accommodations are provided in the workplace.
• Work in partnership with work-based learning centers to determine appropriate accommodations.

How Should Students Disclose Their Disabilities?

There isn't one correct answer when it comes to disclosure of disability to a potential employer. Applicants are not required to discuss their disabilities or request accommodations until a job offer has been made. An employer may only ask about an applicant's ability to perform the functions of the job in question, not his/her disability. If a student's disability is obvious, he should be prepared to discuss its implications during the interview. He should discuss the disability as it relates to the performance of specific job tasks rather than how it is defined medically. He may choose to volunteer the methods he uses to accomplish standard tasks. For example, if blind, he might describe how his voice output system allows efficient computer access.

How Can Students Get Started?

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To get started, students can use the AccessCAREERS acronym:

C is for Careers. Think about interests. Be imaginative, then narrow it down.

A is for Academics. Determine which academic programs best suit career goals.

R is for Research. Research careers that spark interests, maximize strengths, and minimize weaknesses.

EE is for Experiential Education. Practice job search skills. Apply for internships. Ask for informational interviews and try other work-based learning opportunities.

RS is for Relevant Skills. Use on-the-job experience to learn practical, "real world" skills. Apply school learnings to the workplace. Test which accommodations work best.

Students should start doing everything they can now to make themselves attractive to future employers. The resources are out there. They need to find and make use of them.

DO-IT Goes to Work

Work-based learning experiences help students choose careers, network with potential employers, clarify academic goals, and develop job skills relevant to future employment. In one discussion that occurred via an electronic mail discussion list on the Internet, DO-IT students and adult mentors focused on work-based learning experiences that occur before graduation from college. Participants, who have disabilities themselves, responded to the following questions:

• What work-based learning opportunities have you had?
• How do you feel that work-based learning experiences can help people prepare for future employment?
• Do you think it is particularly important for students with disabilities to have work-based learning experiences before they graduate from college? Why or why not?

Below is only a sample of the rich conversation these questions stimulated.

• Work-based learning sounds like an interesting idea, however I am not sure if it is more important than staying on campus and having regular classes at school. Personally, I think a person should be focused on their academics instead of working.
• It is true that it is important to focus on one thing, however life is seldom that simple. I think for the first couple of years of college that classes should be the main thing students worry about. However, it is vital to get hands-on experience before graduation.
• I had a project my senior year of college where I built and maintained a Web site for my church. I'm still maintaining it even after college. It has let me gain experience through experimentation on how to build an effective Web site. It is important for ANY student to do this, and it is especially beneficial to people with disabilities because they sometimes need more help to overcome employers' biases.
• I think work-based learning is an incredibly important component of a student's education. I believe this to be true for any student, with or without a disability. It can be more beneficial for a student with a disability, however. Here's a condensed list as to why it is important:
  • It can help you figure out what you DON'T want to do. A lot of people go through their education with a romantic vision of what career they will pursue after graduation. They often picture themselves as prepared, having taken numerous courses within the occupation's subject area. They are often very disappointed. You may not always enjoy the "practice" as well as the "theory." I have met all sorts of people who hate their jobs, but loved their majors.
  • It can help you determine which accommodations work best for you. The accommodations you use in school may not work at the worksite. Your technology may not interface with the employer's. You need to become a master of your accommodations. Work-based learning gives you the opportunity to practice accommodating yourself. So... when you are applying for your "real job," you will know what accommodations you need as well as where and how to get them.
  • It offers a low-risk, non-threatening opportunity to disclose your disability to an employer. Disclosure of disability can be a nerve-wracking process for both the student and the employer. Interviews for internships and other experiences can help you try out ways of talking about your disability.
  • You can apply what you're learning in school to a real-world situation. This makes learning fun and offers a whole new perspective on the subject area.
  • It enables you to learn and practice skills not learned in a typical classroom.
  • You can sometimes get academic credit for it.
  • You can sometimes get paid for it.
  • You can network with potential future employers. You can prove to an employer who has never had an employee with a disability that you are capable; thus creating a future position for yourself or opening the door for a friend.
  • You might have the opportunity to work with state-of-the-art equipment not available on campus.
  • Employers want education AND experience. Just a degree simply won't cut it anymore. If you want a job when you graduate, this is the best way to get experience in your field.
• I'd agree with the general sentiment that internships and work-related experiences can be good, especially for students with disabilities, although I do think that one needs to ensure that it is a GOOD opportunity.
• I'd argue that internships would work best:
  • where there is clear agreement on tasks to be performed.
  • where previous interns and perhaps the supervisor have disabilities.
  • where the transition to a paid position is clear, if not for the agency, then somewhere else.
• Good point that although internships are a good idea, not all internships are good ones. I would add to this list:
  • a clear understanding that you are there for educational purposes. This could mean a number of things, but most of all it means there is someone to ask questions, and that you will be allowed to perform tasks in such a manner that helps you learn and not necessarily have the focus on performance.
• Also, I agree internships need to be clear about the pay situation, future or whatever. I wouldn't assume however that it will automatically mean employment. Don't be afraid to voice your desire to work there, or get a good recommendation. The bottom line is -- be clear and honest in what you're looking for.
• I agree. Not all internships will lead to a paid position with a company. However, they will help to lead to a paid position somewhere in that they will help to give you much needed experience. Employers want education and experience.
• Hey all! I graduated from high school in '94 and have not yet gone back to school. Since then I have worked with DO-IT, Time-Life Libraries Incorporated, and presently Ticketmaster Northwest. Working has given me motivation to want to return to school and do it well this time. For four years I've been working entry level positions and now have a better understanding of where I want to be in life and the "direction" that I want to go. I also feel that I have a better understanding of the job market and how things work in a highly corporate environment. On the one hand, I'm jealous of the seemingly simple life of college students, and on the other hand, I wish all DO-IT kids could feel the motivation and excitement to learn what I have after four years of poverty and $5.50 an hour jobs.
• I had a valuable work experience when I was in high school. I worked on a project in Explorer Scouts. We formed a group that worked at a local TV station and we actually produced 6 half-hour TV programs that aired on Sunday afternoons. Of course, we were not paid for this, but the experience was valuable in many ways. Other opportunities exist through such programs as Junior Achievement, 4-H, and many community service organizations.
• I do believe that many things can be gained from work-based experiences, even if those experiences are not directly related to the field of interest or career goals of the individual. Interpersonal skills, communication skills, and awareness of one's strengths and limits are just some benefits that can be gained through work-based experiences.
• Where I live, in the country, by a very small town of 514, there just isn't anything for me. I work on our family farm doing what needs to be done, and do some of the paperwork for our finances on my computer, so I guess that is kind of work experience. It should look good on a résumé if nothing else (besides making a small sum of spending money).
• I am visually impaired and hearing impaired as well... I am currently involved in work experience programs within my school and the community as well. The school district has a program called "School-to-Work" and a "school-within-a-school" program. A school-to-work program is basically a program that fits inside the school within a school program. A school-within-a-school is kind of like having a miniature school inside a large school. My school has 3 of these. All three of them have school-to-work programs for internship and co-op training. We do our internships and work experience projects during school hours once a week for 3 1/2 hours at a business/agency. In the past 2 years (third year this year) I have been to a manor, doctor's office, Internet provider and a travel agency and I will be transferring to a new facility next week to a computer center for the disabled. I have gained a lot of knowledge of business management work ethics and other work-related skills. Besides the internships once a week, we are in the school-within-school classes 4 days a week for 3 1/2 hours Mon, Tues, Thurs, and Fri. We take our required classes in this program and it is integrated... Most of all, the school-within-a-school program teaches résumé composition, cover letter composition, business letters, some general knowledge of business law, interview practices and rules, and how to apply for a real job and use good communication skills with supervisors, staff, managers and co-workers.
• I myself have been interested in weather for a long time, but when I was an executive intern with a local meteorologist during my senior year in high school and then worked for two summers for the Assistant State Climatologist of Colorado, these experiences strengthened my desire to go into atmospheric science research. I also learned that connections can really help you get a job! And I practiced articulating my needs when necessary.
• I have some pretty strong viewpoints about work-based learning experiences. I did one last summer and even though it was frustrating, it taught me some lessons that I would not have learned otherwise. First of all, I learned that we need to be able to focus on more than one task at a time. Two, I learned that one can usually do something that he sets his mind to.
• When I first started working for the press, I was doing a little computer article every week. I covered different topics for using the computer... Work, play, Internet... Then, when they got the new computer in with the new software, they were really wondering how to use it and get the job done. I said I was really interested in graphic work. My boss was really wondering if I could do it because, obviously, if you are working with pictures, you have to see... pretty well. He was a little leery about letting me do it because of the program too. It turned out I knew more than him about it, but he didn't want to take the chance. I watched him for a little while one day, and he said ok, try it. From that day on, I was the primary person who did all of it. We just have to know what we can and can't do. At least we have the right to try. If not, oh well, but you can't say we didn't try.
• I've had the following work-based learning experiences:
  • Nursing home administration (worked in the following departments: business, recreation, nursing, social work, maintenance).
  • Hospice (hospice counselor and respite provider/shadow intern).
  • Ronald McDonald House (fundraising department).
  • The American Heart Association ("Jump for Heart" representative and school contact).
• Work-based learning experiences give you a chance to practice and develop work skills that are not taught in the classroom (this would include personal interaction with others, team work, learning how to take criticism etc. etc.).
• I believe it's very important for students with disabilities to have work experiences before they graduate. An internship gives students a chance to problem solve how they will use or transfer an accommodation used in school to a work setting...in a non-threatening environment. It's a learning experience! You learn what works for you, and you learn what doesn't work for you. You may have good experiences or bad experiences, but in my opinion...the bad experiences are sometimes more valuable than the good experiences. And...it's fun!
• My senior year, I had an intern job at a local newspaper... I had been interested in doing some graphic work using computers for a couple of years. I had a couple of job shadows in high school that made me really consider something in this area. So this was a really good way, I think, to get my foot in the door... I think it's important to have one or more of these jobs as early as you can. Whether it would be raking or mowing at the house down the street, or something like I did. My internship wasn't a paying one, but I got high school credit for it since I did it during school hours. If you get paid, great. Extra cash won't hurt, but if not it's still good to just have the experience...
• It's also easier to get a real job in the future if you have done something like that. I work at Disability Support Services on the UND campus, and having the computer and graphics background helped make me look more qualified for the position.
• I focused almost exclusively on academics during high school and college, but got my work experience in during the summers. That seemed to work well.
• It seems the discussion of work-based experience has centered around employment, however, keep in mind that work-based experience does not need to mean that one gets a job. There are other avenues by which one can gain experiences and skills which will be useful once one enters the work market. One can demonstrate leadership by becoming involved in clubs and organizations... run for an office in the student council, for example. Dealing with the challenges one may face in these situations (such as mobility, public perception, adaptive equipment) can help prepare you for dealing with those challenges when they arise in the job market.
• To answer the question raised earlier about the priority which should be placed on work-based experience and school, there is no contest here. School should definitely take priority. However, I think many things can be woven into academic pursuits which will not adversely impact one's education while providing work-based experiences. Keep an open mind and consider all options.

As demonstrated by these opinions, participation in an internship or other work-based learning experience can provide an important step in the transition to a successful career, especially for people with disabilities.

Video Presentation

• Finding Gold: Hiring the Best and the Brightest

Handout

• Finding Gold: Hiring the Best and the Brightest

This section and the accompanying videotape presentation and handout speak to the issues of access to, and benefits of, work-based learning activities from the employer's perspective.

It's difficult to find and retain qualified employees. Many companies report that their number one problem is locating talented workers. This is especially true in the information technology industry where a shortage of about ten thousand workers is reported annually. Recruitment of quality employees comes at a high cost. Many employers have found that identifying talented people before they graduate from college is one way to gain an edge in recruiting. Internship and cooperative education programs are used to develop pools of individuals from which they may ultimately hire.

A college work-based learning experience gives an employer and a student opportunities to "test each other out" and determine if they make a good match, saving the company time and money in recruitment efforts. It also gives a company an opportunity to participate in a potential employee's training and, when the student has a disability, allows the student and employer to test different worksite accommodations.

Corporate success depends on attracting the best minds and that means focusing on ability. However, many people are nervous around people with disabilities. They're afraid they'll say or do the wrong thing. Many employers have not had opportunities to interact with people with disabilities and are not aware of the alternative methods they use to complete standard tasks. It is necessary to look beyond initial perceptions of the capabilities of people with disabilities and allow them, like any other applicant or employee, to demonstrate their ability to perform specific tasks.

In a world where technology is a necessary aspect of almost every business, physical ability is seldom a limitation. Intellect and technical capability are the critical success factors. Assistive technology and other accommodations make it possible for people with disabilities to be competitive in today's labor market. But, they are often not given a chance to prove their worth to potential employers. It is estimated that 73.9% of working-age adults with severe disabilities are unemployed (SIPP, 1994). People with disabilities represent a greatly underutilized labor pool.

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) requires that employers with fifteen or more employees make reasonable accommodations in the workplace for employees with disabilities. Accommodations are to be made on a case-by-case basis and frequently cost less than the employer expects. Dan Hodge, Recruitment Manager for AirTouch Cellular™ (now Verizon Wireless), remarked that, "the cost of making accommodations for a student or for an employee are much less than we ever anticipate they are going to be. And, typically, the accommodations are easy for us to make." In fact, the Job Accommodation Network (JAN), a toll-free service that advises businesses and individuals about accommodations, reports that fifty-one percent of all accommodations cost five-hundred dollars or less. The following chart outlines common costs of accommodations.

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Cost of Accommodations	Percentage
0	20%
$1 - $500	51%
$501 - $1,000	11%
$1,001 - $1,500	3%
$1,501 - $2,000	3%
$2,001 - $5,000	8%
$5,000+	4%

Companies reported a return of $28.69 in benefits for every dollar spent on accommodations (Office of Disability Employment Policy [ formerly President's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilitiess]). In fact, there are two tax credit programs available to assist with workplace accommodations. The Disabled Access Tax Credit is a credit available to small businesses. It gives a fifty percent credit for expenditures over $250 that don't exceed $10,250. The maximum benefit is $5,000. The Architectural Barrier Tax Deduction allows businesses to deduct up to $15,000 of the costs incurred to remove physical barriers. To obtain more information about these programs, and to determine eligibility contact The Office of Chief Counsel, IRS. See the Employment Resources section for contact information.

How Do Employers Determine Appropriate Accommodations? Employers are required to provide reasonable accommodations for an employee with a known disability. The employee must notify the employer of his/her disability and may also be required to provide documentation.

Employers should always consult with the student or employee first when determining appropriate accommodations. It is also helpful to break the process down into the following four steps:

1. What does the task or assignment require?
2. What physical, sensory and cognitive skills are needed?
3. What components of the task require accommodation?
4. What accommodation options exist?

Later in this notebook is a more detailed description of the Four-Step Accommodation Model.

Employers are not required to guess or initiate the conversation regarding the provision of reasonable accommodations. A pre-employment inquiry about a disability or medical condition may not be made by the employer prior to a job offer. This includes asking the question on pre-employment questionnaires or written application forms. Employers may only ask questions regarding the applicant's ability to perform job-related functions.

Campus Disabled Student Services (DSS), the Job Accommodation Network (JAN), and other community resources, such as the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation (DVR), may also be able to assist businesses and employees as they work to determine accommodations. Consult your local telephone directory and the Employment Resources section of this notebook for information on how to contact these agencies.

Where Can Employers find Interns and Employees with Disabilities?

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The first step in attracting applicants with disabilities is as simple as adding a statement outlining an interest in receiving applications from a diverse group of applicants, including those with disabilities, to a company's existing recruitment materials. Next, an employer can disseminate announcements in a variety of settings and formats (print, TV, radio, World Wide Web).

On college campuses, there are several offices that can assist employers with recruitment efforts. Contact colleges, universities, and technical schools directly to inquire about these possibilities. Career Services offices and Cooperative Education programs are used to working with employers and assisting them with locating talented student interns. Businesses can work with these offices to expand recruitment efforts to college students with disabilities.

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Academic departments are often aware of specific students who might be good matches for particular positions and business environments. Establishing contacts with college faculty and staff can assist recruiters in locating skilled employees.

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Campus Disabled Student Services and Access offices (under many different names) provide academic accommodations to students and staff with disabilities. Many offices have newsletters and e-mail discussion groups for their students. Employers should ask if they can advertise job and internship openings through these established methods of communication.

Each state's Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, Department of Services for the Blind, Employment Security, and Governor's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities or equivalent agency can also provide referrals for qualified candidates.

Local communities often have a number of agencies that serve people with disabilities as they pursue employment opportunities. They are listed in local telephone directories.

By advertising available positions in a variety of locations the employer will attract diverse applicants, including people with disabilities.

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There are many ways that disabilities can affect the ability to perform effectively on the job. Levels of disability and ability are unique to an individual. Most accommodations are simple, creative alternatives for traditional ways of doing things. This section includes examples and suggestions for career development staff and employers. Following these simple suggestions will help people with disabilities to fully participate in work-based learning experiences. They are by no means comprehensive. You and the interns with whom you work will have opportunities to generate uniquely effective ideas.

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Low Vision

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By "low vision" we are referring to people who have a visual impairment but have some usable sight. This includes some people who are "legally" blind. For people who have low vision, standard written materials may be too small to read and objects may appear blurry. Others may only see objects within a specific field of vision. Still others see images with sections missing or blacked out. Learning through a visual medium may take longer and may be more mentally fatiguing for people who have low vision than for people who do not.

Examples of accommodations for people with low vision include large print text, handouts, signs, and equipment labels. Many photocopy machines can enlarge text. Some people with low vision may also benefit from having career development publications, job instructions, or other printed materials recorded on audiotape. It may take weeks or months to procure materials in audiotape format. Consequently, it is essential that career counselors and employers select and prepare their materials well before they are needed.

Other examples of accommodations for people with low vision include providing seating where the lighting best meets their individual needs; making brochures, job announcements, and other information available in electronic format; and equipping computers with large monitors and screen enlargement software.

Blindness

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People who have not had vision since birth may have difficulty understanding verbal descriptions of visual materials and abstract concepts. Consider the example, "This organizational chart looks like an upside down tree." If one has never seen a tree, it may not be readily apparent that the structure of note has several lines which can be traced up to one central point. However, a person who lost her vision later in life may find this verbal description easy to understand. Additionally, demonstrations based on color differences may be more difficult for people with blindness to understand than demonstrations which emphasize changes in shape, temperature, or texture. During presentations, meetings, and job-site demonstrations, a clear, concise narration of the basic points being represented in visual aids is helpful.

People who have no sight cannot read written materials in standard formats. Ready access to printed materials on computer disks or via the Internet allow blind workers, who have the appropriate technology, to use computers to read text aloud and/or produce Braille. Some materials may need to be transferred to audiotape. Since it may take weeks or even months to procure specific materials in Braille or on audiotape, it is essential that career counselors and employers select and prepare materials that are needed by a worker who is blind well before the materials are going to be used.

Other examples of accommodations for people who are blind include the provision of tactile models and raised-line drawings of graphic materials; adaptive equipment, such as talking calculators and tactile timers; and computers with optical character readers, voice output, Braille screen displays, and Braille printers.

In communicating with a worker who is blind, it is important to remember that the visual impairment does not affect his ability to think or to hear. Speak in a normal tone. In addition, consider the following suggestions.

• To start a conversation, touch the person lightly on the arm or address him by name to gain his attention.
• Ask the person if he would like you to orient him to a room and any obstacles you may perceive that it contains.
• Use descriptive words such as, "in front of you at eleven o'clock," instead of vague language such as "over there." Keep in mind that a person who is blind cannot relate to hand or facial gestures.
• Feel free to use visual words such as "look" and "see." Expressions such as these are commonly used by people who cannot see.
• Always ask permission before interacting with a person's guide dog.

Hearing Impairments

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Some people who have hearing impairments may hear at a functional level with the assistance of amplification devices such as hearing aids. Others hear only specific frequencies, sounds within a certain volume range, or nothing at all.

Individuals with hearing impairments often use some combination of lip-reading, sign language, and amplification to understand spoken information. People who are deaf from birth generally have more difficulty speaking and understanding the structure of language than those who lost their hearing later in life. In a job setting, everyday noises -- fans and lights -- that are not a bother to hearing people, may have a profound effect on the ability of people with hearing impairments to hear. Career development providers and employers should make worksite adjustments to allow interns or employees to maximize their learning potential and success.

Individuals with hearing impairments may have difficulty following instructions when delivered in large and open settings, particularly if the acoustics cause echoes or if the speaker talks quietly, rapidly, or unclearly. They may find it difficult to simultaneously watch demonstrations and follow verbal descriptions if they are watching a sign language interpreter, a "real-time" captioning screen, or a speaker's lips. It may also be difficult for them to follow or participate in group discussions, particularly when they are fast-paced and unmodulated, since there is often lag time between a speaker's comments and their interpretation to people with hearing impairments.

Examples of accommodations for people who have hearing impairments include the provision of interpreters, sound amplification systems, note takers, visual aids, and electronic mail for meetings and office discussions. Visual warning systems for emergencies may also need to be installed.

The following suggestions can be employed when employers and career counselors communicate with a worker who has a hearing impairment.

• Face the person with a hearing impairment and speak directly and normally to her.
• If an intern who is deaf is using an interpreter, talk directly to the intern, not to the interpreter. The interpreter should be treated as an inanimate object. Focus on the relationship with the intern.
• Use drawings, writing, and gestures to assist you in communicating.
• Make sure lighting levels are adequate.
• Be aware of jargon used on the job and avoid it whenever possible. For example, ADA could mean Americans with Disabilities Act, the American Dental Association, or average daily attendance. Additionally, ASAP (as soon as possible), and BCOB (by the close of business) could be confusing.
• A person with a hearing impairment may wish to use a closed FM amplification system or sign language interpreter when participating in group activities. Upon request, these services should be made available by the career services staff or the employer, depending on who is hosting the activity.
• Find ways to fully include the person with a hearing impairment in group conversations. For example, repeat discussion questions and statements made by other participants in a meeting or presentation.

Speech Impairments

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Some disabilities affect the ability to speak. Computer-based speech output systems provide an alternative voice for some people who cannot speak. Since electronic mail does not require the ability to speak, it provides an efficient medium for communication. The following suggestions will assist employers and career counselors in working with an intern who has a speech impairment.

• Concentrate on what the person is saying.
• If you do not understand something, ask the person to repeat what he said and then repeat it back to him.
• Be patient; take as much time as necessary to communicate effectively.
• When appropriate, ask questions which only require short answers, or a nod of the head.
• Avoid communication in noisy, public places. Talk in a private, quiet area when possible, particularly when discussing things that apply only to her.
• Do not speak for the person or attempt to finish his sentences.
• If you are having difficulty understanding what a person is saying, consider writing or electronic mail as an alternative means of communicating.
• Encourage the worker with a speech impairment to participate in discussions.

Specific Learning Disabilities

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Because a person does not use a wheelchair, have hearing aids, or use a cane does not mean that she does not have a disability. Some disabilities are invisible. These include specific learning disabilities. Individuals with specific learning disabilities generally have average to above average intelligence, but may have difficulties demonstrating knowledge and understanding abstract concepts. Auditory, visual, or tactile information can become jumbled at any point when it is transmitted, received, processed, and re-transmitted. It may take longer for some people who have learning disabilities to process written information. Lengthy reading or writing assignments or tasks may be difficult to complete in a standard amount of time. Some people may be able to organize and communicate their thoughts in one-to-one conversations, but find it difficult to articulate those same ideas at a noisy worksite.

Examples of accommodations for people who have learning disabilities include audiotaped instructions; a quiet workstation location; visual, aural, and tactile demonstrations incorporated into directions; and computers with voice output and spelling and grammar checkers. Also be aware of environmental factors that tend to distract people. Avoid placing people who are easily distracted near high traffic areas and consider seat, window, and door placement in relation to them. Provide a quiet place for them to work.

The following suggestions will assist career services staff and employers in working with an intern who has a learning disability.

• Discuss with the person confidentially the best ways to communicate instructions. They may include written, verbal, or visual strategies, or a combination of several modes of communication. A tape recorder or electronic mail may be useful for relaying instructions in some instances. She may have developed methods for compensating for the limitations caused by her disability. Discuss options with her.
• Once instructions are given, get feedback from the person to determine if they were understood completely.
• Be patient when the person begins a new job. Decrease his stress level by assigning tasks that he can accomplish and build on his strengths.
• Avoid spontaneous changes in the work schedule and environment. A consistent routine is best.
• Reduce time pressures if possible.
• Give assignments early and let the person pace herself.

Mobility Impairments

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Mobility impairments range from lower body impairments, which may require use of canes, walkers, or wheelchairs, to upper body impairments, which may result in limited or no use of the hands. It may take longer for individuals with mobility impairments to get from one worksite to another. It may require special accommodations for them to get to field worksites or off-site meetings. Some people with mobility impairments find it difficult or impossible to manipulate objects, turn pages, write with a pen or pencil, type at a keyboard, or retrieve work-related documents without accommodations.

Examples of accommodations for interns and employees with mobility impairments include the provision of office assistants for specific tasks, accessible office locations, adjustable tables, equipment located within reach, work-related materials available in electronic format, and access to job-related resources on the Internet. Computers can be equipped with special devices such as voice input, Morse code input, and alternative keyboards. Job-related items need to be able to be reached and accessed, and wheelchairs and walkers need space. Avoid clutter and maintain a well-organized worksite.

The following suggestions will assist career services staff and employers in working with a person who has a mobility impairment.

• Offer to help (opening a door, carrying packages) if it makes sense. Ask yourself, "Would I want help in a similar situation?"
• Consider a person's wheelchair or walker as an extension of his body. Therefore, leaning on the wheelchair or walker, or placing your foot on a wheel, is not okay.
• Speak to a person who uses a wheelchair, walker, cane, or crutches in a normal voice strength and tone.
• Talk to a person who uses a wheelchair at eye-level whenever possible. Perhaps you can sit rather than stand.
• Feel free to use phrases such as "walk this way" with a person who cannot walk. Expressions such as this are commonly used by wheelchair users.

Health Impairments

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Some health conditions and medications affect memory and/or energy levels. Additionally, some people who have health impairments may not be able to work full-time or on a daily basis. Part-time employment will be an important option for some people with health impairments. Be flexible and work to establish a reasonable schedule with workers who have health impairments.

Be aware that some health impairments are chronic and stable while others are sporadic (e.g., severe allergies) and require flexible and variable accommodations. Modify your placements, assignments, and/or methods to accommodate sporadic attendance. Additionally, allow for people with health impairments to take time off during the work day to take medication, have a snack (e.g., for a person who is diabetic), rest, or meet with professionals. They may also need access to a refrigerator to store food supplements or medication.

Be aware of medications that people may be taking and their potential physical, emotional, and cognitive effects. This is particularly important for people taking medications for conditions such as seizure disorders and diabetes.

Observe employees or interns with health impairments to determine if there are times during the day when they are more productive. Observe changes in moods, attitudes, quality of work, or general health. Report concerns to appropriate supervisory personnel.

Examples of accommodations for individuals who have health impairments include the provision of note takers and/or taped instruction; flexible attendance requirements; assignments available in electronic format; and electronic mail for staff meetings, office discussions, and distribution of jobsite materials and notes. Telecommuting is sometimes a reasonable option for people with health impairments.

Psychiatric Disabilities

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People who have psychiatric disabilities are not always considered mentally ill. A person with an psychiatric disability may need to be provided with unique on-the-job accommodations to prevent from exacerbating behaviors that are not appropriate in the work environment. Applying the following suggestions will assist career services staff and employers in working with an intern or employee with a psychiatric disability.

• Be positive and expect the person to do well. Friendliness is always the correct road to take.
• Be consistent. The person should know what to expect. Carry through with expected actions.
• Make instructions clear. You may want to write instructions down as well as explain them verbally.
• Reward and compliment good performance on the job. Criticism should be done privately. Provide positive suggestions for improving performance.
• Meet with the person privately on a regular basis to determine if there are problems that can be "headed off" before they get out of hand. "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure."

Summary

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To conclude this discussion of strategies, here are some general suggestions for making career services offices and work-based learning programs accessible to all students.

• Have policies and procedures in place for addressing accommodation needs for people with disabilities.
• Make sure your facility is accessible to people with mobility impairments.
• Provide clear signage in large print.
• Discuss with the intern his/her needs and ideas for accommodations.
• Select materials early so that they can be procured in appropriate formats in a timely manner. Using materials which are available in electronic format is a good step toward accessibility.

When working with a person who has a disability, keep in mind that we are all more alike than different. Each person comes to a new job with unique skills and abilities. Internships allow all students to build on current competencies while gaining new skills that relate to their academic and career goals. People who interact with people who have disabilities have a great impact on their on-the-job success. Many employers use team work environments to maximize the potentials of their employees; this structure allows employees to work together to maximize individual strengths while compensating for weaknesses.

Expect that people with disabilities participating in a work-based learning experience are there to succeed. Keep your expectations high. Be positive and proactive in helping them achieve success. Career counselors and employers who follow the succeeding suggestions can help students with disabilities accomplish just that.

• Do not exhibit the dramatic, "Oh my _______, if I was ________ I wouldn't be able to _______ " syndrome! Most likely the participant with a disability has a full life and has learned to positively meet the challenges posed by the disability.
• Avoid labels for groups of people with disabilities such as "the blind" or "the deaf." Instead, say "people who are blind" or "people who are deaf." Never use the terms "deaf and dumb."
• Avoid emotionally-charged descriptors such as "bedridden," "homebound," "crippled," "unfortunate," "pitiful," "stricken with," "wheelchair-bound," or "confined to a wheelchair." Instead, simply be descriptive such as "he uses a wheelchair."
• Avoid euphemisms to describe disabilities. Terms such as "handicapable," "differently-abled," "physically challenged," and "physically inconvenienced" are considered by many to be condescending. They reinforce the idea that disabilities cannot be dealt with in a straight-forward manner.
• Speak directly to a person and focus on her abilities rather than her disability.
• People who have disabilities have the same range of likes and dislikes as those who do not. Not all blind people are musical; not all people who use wheelchairs play wheelchair basketball; and not all deaf people read lips. Talk about things you talk about with other employees -- weather, sports, politics, what you did today.
• If you are feeling uncomfortable about a situation, let the person who has a disability know.
• Be sure expectations such as job performance, behavior, and dress are clearly defined, and that they are met.
• Provide specific feedback on job performance. If you have concerns about performance, mention it. The person may not know he is doing something incorrectly.
• If a person appears to be having difficulty at a task, he probably is. Ask if, and how, you may help.

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The process of determining appropriate job accommodations is an important aspect of a work-based learning experience. Employers and career development professionals should always work with the student to decide which accommodations will work best for him. Only he knows the full implications of the disability and what will work best in a specific situation. Below is an easy-to-follow four-step process for determining appropriate job accommodations.

Step #1: What does the task or assignment require?

This step asks you to break down ALL of the components of the job. Many times, as an employer you are so close to the project that it is difficult to remember the various settings, tools, skills, and tasks that are required in an individual project. By analyzing and evaluating the task thoroughly, you will be able to determine how best to fully and effectively include a student with a disability.

Step #2: What physical, sensory, and cognitive skills are needed?

This step requires you to compare the tasks required to the physical, sensory, and cognitive skills needed to successfully complete the job. It is easy to say, "If I had a physical, sensory, or cognitive disability I would not be able to successfully complete this job," without really determining what skills are needed. Separate the "real" requirements of the task from the "fictional or perceived" aspects of the project. It is impossible to place yourself in the shoes of the employee with a disability. The future employee may have learned many ways to solve a unique problem or task and work around the limitations his disability may pose.

Step #3: What components of the task require accommodation?

Once the task has been analyzed and the skills needed are identified, step 3 asks you to determine what accommodations may be needed. Here you determine the level of difficulty of the project and determine how best to make an accommodation to create an inclusive environment for an employee with a disability. It is very important to first check with the prospective employee to determine what she perceives as aspects of the job in which she may need an accommodation or assistance.

Step #4: What accommodation options exist?

Now that the tasks that need accommodation have been determined, identify what resources exist for providing the necessary accommodation. This is a time when other staff or employees who have expertise in a specific area can be called on to provide input. Remember, however, that the employee with a disability should always be your first resource. The cost and time required for the accommodation are variables that may also be weighed in determining an effective accommodation. Use the most readily available resources in making accommodations. Campus Disabled Student Services (DSS), the Job Accommodation Network (JAN), and other community resources, such as the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation (DVR) may also be able to assist you. Consult the Resources section of this notebook for information on how to contact these organizations.

Following is a graphic representation of the Four-step Accommodation Model.

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Following is the Abilities Profile form. It is designed to guide you in determining an intern or employee's skills and abilities and in breaking down a job assignment into individual components. The form asks you to briefly describe the characteristics of the worker, equipment and supplies needed, available professional and external resources, possible accommodations and the physical, sensory, and cognitive skills needed for the job or task. Following the form are six examples for your reference and study.

 

 

Following is a list of articles and videotapes that can be used for further research and instruction in the area of computing access for individuals with disabilities.

Anson, D.K. (1997). Alternative computer access: A guide to selection. Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company.

Berliss J.(1994) Boon or bust? Access to electronic publishing by individuals using adaptive computer technology. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 45 (10), 753-59.

Brightman, A.J., & Green, P. (1990). Independence day: Designing computer solutions for individuals with disabilities. Allen, TX: DLM.

Brown, C. (1993). Assistive computer technology: Opening new doorways. New Directions for Student Services, 64, 89-102.

Brown, C. (1992). Assistive technology, computers and persons with disabilities. Communications of the ACM, 35 (5), 36-45.

Burger, D., Improved access to computers for the visually handicapped: New prospects and principles. (1994). IEEE Transactions on Rehabilitation Engineering, 2 (3), 111-118.

Burgstahler, S.E. (1998). Making Web pages universally accessible. Computer-Mediated Communications Magazine, 5 (1).

Burgstahler, S.E. (1997). Teaching on the Net: What's the difference? T. H. E. Journal, 24 (9), 61-4.

Burgstahler, S.E., & Comden, D. (1997). World wide access: Focus on libraries. Journal of Information Technology and Disabilities, 4 (1-2).

Burgstahler, S.E., Comden, D., & Fraser, B. (1997). Universal access: Electronic resources in libraries -- Presentation materials. Seattle, WA: DO-IT, University of Washington.

Burgstahler, S.E. (1994). Adaptive technology that provides student access to computers. The EDUTECH Report, 10 (4), 4-5.

Burkhead, E.J., McMahon, B.T., & Sampon, J.P. (1986). The liberation of disabled persons in a technological society: Access to computer technology. Rehabilitation Literature, 47 (7-8), 162-168.

Chalfen, D.H., & Farb, S.E. (1996). Universal access and the ADA: A disability access design specification for the new UCLA library online information system. Library Hi Tech, 14 (1), 51-56.

Closing the gap 1998 resource directory. Closing the Gap, 16 (6), 41-195.

Computers, technology, and people with disabilities. Washington, DC: HEATH Resource Center.

Coombs, N., & Cartwright, G.P. (1994). Project EASI: Equal Access to Software and Information. Change, 26 (2), 42-44.

Cunningham, C. & Coombs, N. (1997). Information access and adaptive technology. Phoenix, AZ: Orynx Press.

Deines-Jones, C. (1996). Access to library internet services for patrons with disabilities: Pragmatic considerations for developers. Library Hi Tech, 14 (1), 57-64,68.

Disability-related resources on the internet. Seattle, WA: DO-IT, University of Washington.

Dixon, J. M. (1996). Leveling the road ahead: Guidelines for the creation of WWW pages accessible to blind and visually handicapped users. Library Hi Tech, 14 (1), 65-68.

DO-IT, University of Washington. (1998). Equal access: Computer labs. Seattle, WA.

DO-IT, University of Washington. (1998). Equal access: Computer labs (videotape). Seattle, WA.

DO-IT, University of Washington. (1998). Opening doors: Mentoring on the internet. Seattle, WA.

DO-IT, University of Washington. (1998). Opening doors: Mentoring on the Internet (videotape). Seattle, WA.

DO-IT, University of Washington. (1997). World wide access: Accessible web design. Seattle, WA.

DO-IT, University of Washington. (1997). World wide access (videotape). Seattle, WA.

DO-IT, University of Washington. (1994). Working together: People with disabilities and computer technology. Seattle, WA.

DO-IT, University of Washington. (1994). Working together: People with disabilities and computer technology (videotape). Seattle, WA.

Filipczak, B. (1993). Adaptive technology for the disabled. Training, 30 (3), 23-29.

EASI, American Association of Higher Education. Adaptive technology for people with disabilities (videotape). Washington, DC.

Horne, R. (Ed.). Assistive technology. ( 1989) NICHCY News Digest, 13.

Lazzaro, J.J. (1994). Opinion: Adaptive computing and the internet: One step forward, two steps back? Internet Research, 4 (4), 2-8.

Lazzaro, J.J. (1993). Adaptive technologies for learning and work environments. Chicago, IL: American Library Association.

Lazzaro, J.J. (1993). Computers for the disabled. Byte, 18 (7), 59, 61-62, 64.

Pesta, John. (1994). Assistive, adaptive, amazing technologies. TECHNOS, 3 (2), 10-12.

Taylor, B., & Squires, P.C. (1988). Computers offer disabled persons "equal footing." O.T. Week, 4, 14.

Trace Resource Book: Assistive technologies for communication, control & computer access. (1996-97 Edition). Madison, WI: Trace Research and Development Center.

Wobschall, R., & Lakin, C. (Eds.). (1995). Assistive technologies feature issue. IMPACT, 8 (1).

Wong, M.A. (1997). Disability and the internet: Access and use as means toward greater self-advocacy. Physical disabilities: Education and related services, 15 (2), 23-36.

 

Ability: Health & Disability Index
www.seeability.org
A site that provides indexes that lead to information on various health issues. The site addresses the problem that too many valuable skills are overlooked and wasted because employers and the public see disability before ability.

Able-job
A forum for job offers and business opportunities for people with disabilities. To subscribe, send a message with a blank subject line to listserv@maelstrom.stjohns.edu. In the body of the message type "subscribe able-job Firstname Lastname."

Ada-access
A discussion of physical access for people with disabilities as well as information on programs, services, and transportation. To subscribe, send a message with a blank subject line to listserv@listserv.aol.com. In the body of the message type "subscribe ada-access Firstname Lastname."

Ada-law
A discussion list on the Americans with Disabilities Act, other disability-related laws in the U.S., and similar laws in other countries. To subscribe, send a message with a blank subject line to listserv@vm1.nodak.edu. In the body of the message type "subscribe ada-law Firstname Lastname."

Advocacy
Discussion list to promote self-advocacy by people with disabilities. To subscribe, send a message with a blank subject line to listserv@maelstrom.stjohns.edu. In the body of the message type "subscribe advocacy Firstname Lastname."

American Institute of Architects (AIA) Library and Archives
1735 New York Avenue NW
Washington, D.C. 20006
800-365-ARCH
202-626-7493
www.aia.org/about/history/AIAS076705
This site provides material on barrier-free design.

American Printing House for the Blind, Inc. (APH)
PO Box 6085
Louisville, KY 40206-0085
800-233-1839
502-895-2405
502-899-2244 (FAX)
webmaster@aph.org
www.aph.org
A large not-for-profit organization that creates educational, workplace, and lifestyle products and services for people with visual impairments.

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), The
10801 Rockville Pike
Rochville, MD 20852
Answer line: 888-321-ASHA
Action Center: 800-498-2071
301-897-5700
301-897-0157 (TTY)
301-571-0457 (FAX)
http://www.asha.org/
A professional, scientific, and credentialing association for audiologists, speech-language pathologists, and speech, language, and hearing scientists. This Web site is a resource for information about communication disorders, and for those wanting career-related and membership information.

Americans with Disabilities Act Document Center (ADADC)
www.ada.gov/2010_regs.htm
Full-text government documents and legal resources on the ADA which is maintained by volunteers.

America's Job Bank
www.ajb.dni.us
This site provides information for employers and job seekers on the job market. Includes information on résumé writing, and other associated links.

Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board (ATBCB)
1331 F Street NW Suite 1000
Washington, D.C. 20004-1111
202-272-5434
800-USA-ABLE
202-272-5449 (TTY)
800-993-2822 (TTY)
202-272-5447 (FAX)
info@access-board.gov
www.access-board.gov
Enforces requirements for access to Federally-funded buildings and facilities, sets guidelines under the Americans with Disabilities Act, and provides technical assistance and information.

Blindjob
A discussion list about issues related to employment of people who are blind. To subscribe, send a message with a blank subject line to listserv@maelstrom.stjohns.edu. In the body of the message type "subscribe blindjob Firstname Lastname."

Career Mosaic
www.careermosaic.org
Information on résumés, online job fairs, colleges, and a database of available jobs.

Career Guide for People With Disabilities
novoresume.com/career-blog/disability-career-guide
A career guide with information on job searches, knowing your rights, great career options, and other resources.

Career Path
www.careerpath.com
A site to research careers, post a résumé, and find a job.

Career Resource Center
www.careers.org
An extensive index of career-related Web sites.

Career Web
www.cweb.com
A job database and information for job seekers and employers.

College and Career Programs for Deaf Students
www.galludet.edu
College and Career Programs for Deaf Students, the Ninth Edition, is a book to help inform deaf and hard of hearing people about programs around North America. It also contains information on the availability of special services and career areas for deaf and hard of hearing students.

DAteach
A discussion group for teachers with disabilities to share information about problems and solutions regarding teaching with a disability, to give and receive support, and to provide guidance for people with disabilities who wish to pursue a teaching career. To subscribe, send a message with a blank subject line to listserv@listserv.montana.edu. In the body of the message type "subscribe dateach."

Disabled Businesspersons Association (DBA)
disabledbusiness.org
A national, nonprofit, public charity and educational organization founded in 1991 to help entrepreneurs with disabilities and professionals maximize their potentials in the business world, and to encourage participation and enhance performance of people with disabilities in the workforce.

DO-IT (Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking, and Technology)
University of Washington
Box 354842
Seattle, WA 98195-4842
206-685-DOIT (3648) (voice/TTY)
888-972-DOIT (3648) (voice/TTY)
206-221-4171 (fax)
509-328-9331 (voice/TTY) Spokane
doit@uw.edu
www.uw.edu/doit
DO-IT produces free and low cost educational publications and videotape presentations that help educators, students, and employers learn about access issues related to people with disabilities. DO-IT helps people with disabilities use technology to achieve high levels of independence, productivity, and participation in academic programs and careers.

Doitsem
Doitsem (Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking, and Technology in Science, Engineering and Mathematics) is for those interested in increasing the representation of individuals with disabilities in these academic and career fields. Subscribe at mailman.u.washington.edu/mailman/listinfo/doitsem

AccessCAREERS (Careers, Academics, Research, Experiential Education, and Relevant Skills)
https://www.washington.edu/doit/programs/accesscollege/employment-office/overview
AccessCAREERS works to increase the successful participation of college students with disabilities in work-based learning programs.

Eagleview
www.eagleview.com
Provides information for job seekers and employers.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
1801 L Street NW
Washington, D.C. 20507
202-663-4900
800-800-3302 (TDD)
www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/accommodation.html
Enforcement guidance on reasonable accommodation and undue hardship under The Americans with Disabilities Act.

Equal Opportunity Publications, Inc., CAREERS & the disABLED
www.eop.com/mags-CD.php
A career guidance and recruitment magazine for people with disabilities who are at the undergraduate, graduate, or professional level. Each issue features a special Braille section.

Global Applied Disability Research and Information Network on Employment and Training (GLADNET)
www.gladnet.org
The Vocational Rehabilitation Branch of the International Labour Organization (ILO), a specialized agency of the United Nations.

Humanser
An organization of professionals who are blind and working or aspiring to work in the fields of social work, psychology, rehabilitation, and counseling. To subscribe, send a message with a blank subject line to listserv@nfbnet.org. In the body of the message type "subscribe humanser."

Idealist Nonprofit Career Center
http://idealistcareers.org/​
A Web site to search for internships and permanent employment in the nonprofit sector.

Job Accommodation Network (JAN)
800-526-2262 Canada
800-526-7234 United States
800-ADA-WORK
304-293-5407 (FAX)
jan@jan.icdi.wvu.edu
janweb.icdi.wvu.edu
In the United States, JAN is a service of the President's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities. In Canada, JAN is a service of the Canadian Council on Rehabilitation and Work. It provides information and consultation about adapting worksites, classes, and labs.

Occupational Outlook Handbook
www.bls.gov/ooh
Employment projections, job-related publications, and definitions of occupational titles.

Office of Chief Counsel, IRS
1111 Constitution Ave NW
Washington, D.C. 20224
202-622-3110
Information on tax credits available to employers to assist with providing accommodations for people with disabilities.

Office of Disability Employment Policy
Formerly President's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities
1331 F Street, N.W. Suite 300
Washington D.C. 20004
202-376-6200 (voice)
202-376-6205 (TTY)
202-376-6219 (FAX)
infoodep@dol.gov
www.dol.gov/odep
Promotes employment of people with disabilities.

Office of Equal Employment Opportunity
202-663-4399 (voice)
202-989-4399 (TTY)
Information on employment law.

Online Career Center
www.occ.com
Information on job searching, résumé writing, and career opportunities.

Registry of Interpreters of the Deaf (RID)
333 Commerce Street
Alexandria, VA 22314
(703) 838-0030
(703) 838-0459 (TTY)
(703) 838-0454 (Fax)
www.rid.org
Organization which includes professional interpreters of American Sign Language and transliterators of English. 

Riley Guide
www.rileyguide.com
Information on employment opportunities and job resources.

Seaside's Disability, Assistive Technology, and Related Links
A Web site that contains disability-related information on careers and jobs, children, disability and legality, medicine and health, mobility, and recreation.

U.S. Department of Justice Americans with Disabilities Act Home Page
950 Pennsylvania Ave NW
Washington, D.C. 20530-0001
800-514-0301
800-514-0383 (TTY)
www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/adahom1.htm
Information on the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).

Work-Web
www.workweb.io
A service to advertise or locate job opportunities.